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1 Introduction1

Motivation to Study Combustion1

A Definition of Combustion6

Combustion Modes and Flame Types6

Approach to Our Study8

References8

2 Combustion and Thermochemistry9

Overview9

Review of Property Relations9

Extensive and Intensive Properties9

Equation of State10

Calorific Equations of State11

Ideal-Gas Mixtures13

Latent Heat of Vaporization15

First Law of Thermodynamics16

First Law—Fixed Mass16

First Law—Control Volume17

Reactant and Product Mixtures18

Stoichiometry18

Absolute（or Standardized）Enthalpy and Enthalpy of Formation24

Enthalpy of Combustion and Heating Values27

Adiabatic Flame Temperatures32

Chemical Equilibrium36

Second-Law Considerations36

Gibbs Function38

Complex Systems44

Equilibrium Products of Combustion45

Full Equilibrium45

Water-Gas Equilibrium47

Pressure Effects51

Some Applications52

Recuperation and Regeneration52

Flue-（or Exhaust-）Gas Recirculation58

Summary66

Nomenclature66

References68

Review Questions69

Problems70

Appendix 2A—Some Fuel Chemistry78

3 Introduction to Mass Transfer83

Overview83

Rudiments of Mass Transfer83

Mass Transfer Rate Laws84

Species Conservation90

Some Applications of Mass Transfer92

The Stefan Problem92

Liquid-Vapor Interface Boundary Conditions94

Droplet Evaporation98

Summary105

Nomenclature105

References107

Review Questions107

Problems108

4 Chemical Kinetics111

Overview111

Global versus Elementary Reactions112

Elementary Reaction Rates113

Bimolecular Reactions and Collision Theory113

Other Elementary Reactions118

Rates of Reaction for Multistep Mechanisms119

Net Production Rates119

Compact Notation121

Relation between Rate Coefficients and Equilibrium Constants122

Steady-State Approximation125

The Mechanism for Unimolecular Reactions126

Chain and Chain-Branching Reactions127

Chemical Time Scales133

Partial Equilibrium138

Summary140

Nomenclature140

References141

Questions and Problems143

5 Some Important Chemical Mechanisms148

Overview148

The H2-O2 System148

Carbon Monoxide Oxidation152

Oxidation of Higher Paraffins153

General Scheme153

Global and Quasi-global Mechanism156

Methane Combustion158

Complex Mechanism158

High-Temperature Reaction Pathway Analysis158

Low-Temperature Reaction Pathway Analysis166

Oxides of Nitrogen Formation168

Summary171

References172

Questions and Problems174

6 Coupling Chemical and Thermal Analyses of Reacting Systems178

Overview178

Constant-Pressure， Fixed-Mass Reactor179

Application of Conservation Laws179

Reactor Model Summary182

Constant-Volume，Fixed-Mass Reactor182

Application of Conservation Laws182

Reactor Model Summary183

Well-Stirred Reactor189

Application of Conservation Laws190

Reactor Model Summary192

Plug-Flow Reactor200

Assumptions200

Application of Conservation Laws201

Applications to Combustion System Modeling205

Summary206

Nomenclature206

References208

Problems and Projects209

Appendix 6A—Some Useful Relationships among Mass Fractions，Mole Fractions，Molar Concentrations，and Mixture Molecular Weights214

7 Simplified Conservation Equations for Reacting Flows215

Overview215

Overall Mass Conservation（Continuity）216

Species Mass Conservation（Species Continuity）218

Multicomponent Diffusion221

General Formulations222

Calculation of Multicomponent Diffusion Coefficients223

Simplified Approach226

Momentum Conservation229

One-Dimensional Forms229

Two-Dimensional Forms230

Energy Conservation234

General One-Dimensional Form234

Shvab-Zeldovich Forms236

Useful Form for Flame Calculations240

The Concept of a Conserved Scalar241

Definition of Mixture Fraction241

Conservation of Mixture Fraction242

Conserved Scalar Energy Equation246

Summary247

Nomenclature248

References249

Review Questions250

Problems251

8 Laminar Premixed Flames253

Overview253

Physical Description254

Definition254

Principal Characteristics254

Typical Laboratory Flames256

Simplified Analysis261

Assumptions262

Conservation Laws262

Solution264

Detailed Analysis269

Governing Equations269

Boundary Conditions270

Structure of CH4-Air Flame271

Factors Influencing Flame Velocity and Thickness274

Temperature274

Pressure277

Equivalence Ratio278

Fuel Type278

Flame Speed Correlations for Selected Fuels278

Quenching，Flammability，and Ignition283

Quenching by a Cold Wall284

Flammability Limits289

Ignition291

Flame Stabilization294

Summary298

Nomenclature299

References300

Review Questions302

Problems302

9 Laminar Diffusion Flames305

Overview305

Nonreacting Constant-Density Laminar Jet306

Physical Description306

Assumptions307

Conservation Laws308

Boundary Conditions308

Solution309

Jet Flame Physical Description314

Simplified Theoretical Descriptions317

Primary Assumptions318

Basic Conservation Equations318

Additional Relations319

Conserved Scalar Approach320

Various Solutions327

Flame Lengths for Circular-Port and Slot Burners331

Roper’s Correlations331

Flowrate and Geometry Effects336

Factors Affecting Stoichiometry336

Soot Formation and Destruction343

Counterflow Flames347

Mathematical Description348

Structure of CH4-Air Flame350

Summary354

Nomenclature354

References356

Review Questions359

Problems359

10 Droplet Evaporation and Burning362

Overview362

Some Applications362

Diesel Engines363

Gas-Turbine Engines365

Liquid-Rocket Engines367

Simple Model of Droplet Evaporation367

Assumptions370

Gas-Phase Analysis372

Droplet Lifetimes375

Simple Model of Droplet Burning378

Assumptions379

Problem Statement380

Mass Conservation381

Species Conservation381

Energy Conservation383

Summary and Solution389

Burning Rate Constant and Droplet Lifetimes391

Extension to Convective Environments395

Additional Factors398

One-Dimensional Vaporization-Controlled Combustion399

Physical Model399

Assumptions401

Mathematical Problem Statement401

Analysis402

Model Summary410

Summary410

Nomenclature413

References415

Problems418

Projects420

Appendix 10A—Sir Harry R. Ricardo’s Description of Combustion in Diesel Engines421

11 Introduction to Turbulent Flows423

Overview423

Definition of Turbulence424

Length Scales in Turbulent Flows427

Four Length Scales427

Turbulence Reynolds Numbers430

Analyzing Turbulent Flows434

Reynolds Averaging and Turbulent Stresses435

The Closure Problem437

Axisymmetric Turbulent Jet441

Beyond the Simplest Model444

Summary445

Nomenclature446

References447

Questions and Problems449

12 Turbulent Premixed Flames450

Overview450

Some Applications450

Spark-Ignition Engines450

Gas-Turbine Engines451

Industrial Gas Burners452

Definition of Turbulent Flame Speed454

Structure of Turbulent Premixed Flames456

Experimental Observations456

Three Flame Regimes457

Wrinkled Laminar-Flame Regime462

Distributed-Reaction Regime466

Flamelets-in-Eddies Regime468

Flame Stabilization470

Bypass Ports470

Burner Tiles471

Bluff Bodies471

Swirl or Jet-Induced Recirculating Flows473

Summary474

Nomenclature475

References476

Problems478

13 Turbulent Nonpremixed Flames481

Overview481

Jet Flames484

General Observations484

Simplified Analysis489

Flame Length495

Flame Radiation501

Liftoff and Blowout504

Other Configurations509

Summary512

Nomenclature513

References514

Review Questions517

Problems517

14 Burning of Solids519

Overview519

Coal-Fired Boilers520

Heterogeneous Reactions520

Burning of Carbon522

Overview523

One-Film Model524

Two-Film Model536

Particle Burning Times542

Coal Combustion544

Other Solids545

Summary545

Nomenclature546

References547

Questions and Problems548

15 Pollutant Emissions550

Overview550

Effects of Pollutants551

Quantification of Emissions553

Emission Indices553

Corrected Concentrations555

Various Specific Emission Measures558

Emissions from Premixed Combustion559

Oxides of Nitrogen559

Carbon Monoxide567

Unburned Hydrocarbons568

Catalytic Aftertreatment569

Particulate Matter571

Emissions from Nonpremixed Combustion572

Oxides of Nitrogen573

Unburned Hydrocarbons and Carbon Monoxide584

Particulate Matter586

Oxides of Sulfur586

Summary587

Nomenclature588

References589

Questions and Problems594

16 Detonations598

Overview598

Physical Description598

Definition598

Principal Characteristics599

One-Dimensional Analysis600

Assumptions600

Conservation Laws601

Combined Relations602

Detonation Velocities609

Structure of Detonation Waves613

Summary617

Nomenclature618

References619

Problems620

Appendix A Selected Thermodynamic Properties of Gases Comprising C—H—O—N System621

Appendix B Fuel Properties648

Appendix c Selected Properties of Air，Nitrogen，and Oxygen653

Appendix D Binary Diffusion Coefficients and Methodology for their Estimation656

Appendix E Generalized Newton’s Method for the Solution of Nonlinear Equations659

Appendix F Computer Codes for Equilibrium Products of Hydrocarbon—Air Combustion662

Index665